Chinese culture Essay

Chinese culture is known to value education as one of the most important things that you can have in the world. This historical importance of education in the Chinese culture dates back from the teachings of Confucius. China is also rich in great thinkers and philosophers, all having important contributions for China and in the global scale. There philosophy was that they believe in achieving social harmony through freeing humans from deprivation and be given appropriate education and learning. According to Confucian teaching, all of us have the potential to be great, and that education is a way to achieve this. Also, educating a person can help in correcting him, if ever he has strayed as to what is known as ethical behavior. Confucius is a proponent of offering education to all the people from all classes. Education has been a driving force for success; people from low social positions could have the chance to rise and make their selves know through proper education. Confucius’ teachings have become a basis of the social norms of the country and a great aspect in the formation of the Chinese society. Everyone, even the penniless, strives hard to send their sons to school, in hope for a change in their way of life. Education does not only prove to be a source of knowledge but also a source of hope. Chinese education is very democratic in nature, wherein it is open for anyone, and that it promises to uplift him the society as long as he is able to survive the hardships that are brought about by studying lessons and arduous examinations. Chinese people believed in the teachings of Confucius and have used the hope of education as a motivation. They are all veered towards a life of memorizing the Classics and studying for exams in the hope of having a good position in the society afterwards. Some of them succeeded in doing so, and have found that their efforts have all been rewarded. They believe that if they work with their heads, they will be able to rule, being in the top brass of the society; as for those who work with their hands, they are meant to serve others instead. Education then became a mode or strategy in order to survive in the country which is plagued with poverty, a country so large that the government barely hears the calls of the people, unless you strive and make you known: the purpose of having proper education. This was reflected in Lu Xun’s writings, especially in the Preface to â€Å"Call to Arms. † Lu Xun tells his life story, how he started as a young boy raised in a poor family. When his father died of an illness without getting properly cured, he was set into achieving a life in medicine. He aims to do this with the help of education. Just like most of the people in China, he sees education as a way to uplift them of their social status. Even if they are living a poor life, they still have the chance to rise up from poverty. This is by sending him to study and get proper education, away from his family. His mother did everything in order to send him to school. Poverty didn’t stand in the way; she literally worked till her back hurt in order to support Lu Xun in his education. Lu Xun on the other hand did his part and went to a school in his search for education. He was more inclined with medicine, and he further learned that his father wouldn’t have died if he was given the proper treatment, not the old ways of treating such ailments. Families suffered because of false prescriptions, lives were lost without actually being able to give any possible solutions to ailments. He studied a lot, and got into an introduction on Western medical science to Japan. This has brought him somewhere farther away from home, in the provincial medical college in Japan in his search for knowledge. He was thinking of being able to cure patients just like his deceased father, so that patients will not be wrongly treated anymore in the hands of the false prophets giving medical aids. He all dream of doing so upon his return to China even with the increasing unrest and development of wars at that time. Even so, he didn’t lose sight of his dream. He thought that if ever war broke out, he could then serve his country by volunteering to be an army doctor, alongside helping to strengthen the faith of his people towards reformation. What changed him that time is when he saw a film about the execution of a Chinese man. This was done in Japan when they found out about a Russian spy in the person of a Chinese man. Other Chinese people gathered around the man being executed as spectators of what is happening to a fellow Chinese. This had opened his eye that even if he pursue medicine, this can’t prevent the deaths of people who belong to a weak and backward country, and dying from illness may be very less likely to occur. The health of these people doesn’t matter anymore, as long as they are bound by the hardships of the society, they will all end up getting killed or watching others getting killed. The most possible solution that he could turn to was to change their spirit; and this sparked his motivation to move on to literature. He could use up his skills in writing to end this problem, and probably be able to initiate a literary movement. He will pioneer a movement that could hopefully serve his people’s interest; since most of the students in Tokyo are taking up law, political science, physics, chemistry and more, but none of them are studying the arts and literature. There were but a few who has the same inclination as Lu Xun, and they have conglomerated in order to fulfill the same goal by turning to using literature as a weapon against the problems of the society. As their first step, they decide to publish a magazine, signifying a new birth. There are a lot of things that happened afterwards, but eventually led to his collection of various short stories, something that signify his success, maybe not totally, but in his self, he was able to fulfill his dream of affecting a large number of people through literature. Lu Xun’s experiences were but a manifestation of China’s enlightenment, wherein he was able to analyze the worth of his actions, how his futile attempts to lift his position in the society become a detrimental action for the country itself. Chinese culture offered education as a solution, but not all the time should people rely on it. This may cause their demise, if not the total destruction of their beloved culture. Education is really an important aspect to consider, especially for the part of the Chinese people. They give it great value, and they see it as a way to uplift the life they are living in. But during the May Fourth Movement of 1919, people have stood up to the test of time; education is not always the solution. From Lu Xun’s pint of view, his pursue of getting proper education in the field of medicine is not enough. His eyes were opened to the reality of the society; they are living in a hostile environment, that if they don’t take action, they will end up getting crushed. Investing in the minds is not enough, since they have other aspects to fill in. People from other culture undermined the Chinese people’s abilities to assess things in life in the sense of practicality. They have been engrossed in education that they were neglecting the actual concerns of the people. They were more on an individualistic perspective rather that the interest of their nation. Lu Xun has realized this, from the time that he wished to have proper medical education so that he will be able to cure the person, which has been deprived for his deceased father. His personal intention of redeeming himself from the reality that his father could be saved has clouded his mind. In the early years of his time, he was just concentrating on his personal growth, despite the fact that he could have already involved in enriching the Chinese people’s spirit though literature. He realized this in his late years, and has been a manifestation of enlightenment in his personal level. Lu Xun’s writings were really a call to arms, encouraging people to move, to take action so that they can avoid getting crushed. These are encouragements that he gives out to the people of China, an enlightenment that takes them to a transitional phase. The transition of these people is from self-centered efforts of education to the efforts which are more on the national interest. People who were just thinking about raising themselves from poverty are now encouraged to think on a national level; what can they do to improve their country? It is truly a manifestation of enlightenment, wherein the writings of Lu Xun was a call to arms which transformed self-centered Chinese people to a Chinese citizen concerned with the greater interests of the country. This is highly manifested in the May Fourth Movement of 1919, wherein thousands of students stood up and fought for the country, making their voices heard all over the world. It was basically a cultural and political movement of the early modern China, which marked the awakening of a national interest, a wake-up call for the individualistic people to take action to save their country from the clutches of oppression from other countries. It awakened Chinese nationalism and re-evaluated Chinese cultural institutions including the pioneering Confucianism. This is to answer the oppression that they received from the unfair settlements of the Treaty of Versailles, which is known as the Shandong problem, arousing national interest and awakening a movement inside every Chinese citizen. When the Chinese government embraced the intervention from foreigners and the interests of other countries, the Chinese people sensed injustice in their demands from the country. Nationalism was ignited in every heart of the Chinese people because of the unfair treatment being given by the present government who are getting help from foreigners in exchange of favors against national interests. The major proponents of these movements are the students, who stood up and took the streets so that their voices could be heard not only by the government leaders but also by the world. In the outbreak of the World War I, the Beijing government took the side of the Allied Triple Entente because they are pursuing the return of Shandong to China. Shandong has been under the influence of Germany at that time, and China wanted its return. Japan, a fellow Allied power then pursued an attack on all German installations and properties including Shandong when the war came to an end. In a peace conference in Paris, the Chinese government requested for the return of Shandong to China, ever since Japan took it from Germany at the times of the World War I. But at the end of the peace conference in Paris, France, all the Chinese requests have been totally neglected by the Western Allies, dominating most of the meeting and ignoring the sentiments of China. Even though these western countries advocated self-determination, it seems that they have betrayed the fellow Allied power China when they didn’t care to notice of their few requests and arrangements. These events have fueled the fire inside the hearts of the Chinese people, most especially the Chinese students, leading to the outbreak of what we know now as the May Fourth Movement, and event in history that marked the awakening of the Chinese minds towards the harsh reality that we have today; the cruelty of man. In the early hours of May 4, 1919, Chinese students from the local universities of China came and met in Peking to draft and create a few resolutions to answer the Shandon Problem that has aroused from the unfair treatment that they have received from their allies. This includes the opposition of the German concessions in Shandong that was transferred to the Japanese hands. Another is to make everyone in China aware of the position they are into. They want them to know what is happening in their nation today, and that they want to raise the people’s awareness. Another was a â€Å"call to arms,† requesting the people to hold a demonstration that will show their disgust and opposition to the results and terms included in the Treaty of Versailles. The Allied betrayal of China has raised the anger of the Chinese people which encouraged them to stand up and took the streets to hold a demonstration. Majority of these people are students, coming from the local universities of the country. They wanted to get rid of the â€Å"traitors† that has overlooked the interest of China for their own interests. They wanted to punish the political figures at that time which hold important positions as diplomats. The following days were all signs of demonstrations. People especially students from Beijing and other neighboring regions of the country rose and went on strike as a whole, encouraging other parts of the country to do so and follow what they have started. The movement went one, from Beijing to Shanghai to other parts of China, calling the people to take the streets, a true â€Å"call to arms† in order to fight oppression from other countries that opposed them. They have been deprived of their small requests, which mean that they were betrayed by their allies at one point of time. This event is comparable to Lu Xun’s â€Å"A Madman’s Diary, wherein he feature’s the accounts of a person who may not be in the right frame of mind, chronicling everything that he experiences in his day to day life as a â€Å"normal† person in his own point of view. This diary serves as an answer to the May Fourth Movement, which is out on a different context. The mad man’s views may be considered to be as China at that time, while the other characters could be considered as the close people in his life. The mad man views that he is the center of the attention of all the people around him. They look into him as something different, not as a person, but as something material in nature. He thinks that these people wanted to eat him that they see him as someone that can be considered as food, someone that can be cooked just like pork, or chicken, and then be devoured to satisfy the hungry mouths of the people. He fears that anytime he can be attacked, be killed, butchered, and finally be eaten. Every time he walks out of his house, he is always wary that people are looking at him differently, that they have other intentions in their minds. Even the neighborhood’s youngsters look at him differently, just like how the old ones look at him. This has caused him of the uneasy feelings which deprives him of sleep and a good meal, and thinks that anytime soon, people will come barging in and attacking him so that they will be able to devour his flesh. These thoughts were not limited to his neighbors only. He has been thinking like this even with his relatives. He is thinking that his older brother and their caretaker also wanted to eat him. He sees his brother as the biggest threat to his welfare, that he is also interested in devouring his flesh and organs. Because of this, he thinks that he is not safe even in his own house. He then confronts his brother and gets into an argument with him. In the end, he suspected his brother more, with the intentions of devouring his flesh growing as the time lengthens. This was a manifestation of the May Fourth Movement’s awakening. The mad man was China, wherein he is afraid of getting eaten by the people in the community. It reflects the significance of China in a global stature. Many pursue his flesh, and that is literally the territories of the nation. China is a rich country which makes it susceptible for the negative intentions that other countries have against it and its territories. He was trying hard to protect it, and even seek the help of his relatives. These relatives are the Allied powers, whom China gave their allegiance. They wanted to get Shandong back in their names, only to find out that even Japan, a co-Allied power was after it. And the worst part was that they were ignored by the other allied nations. What the Western allied countries did to China was a big slap in their face. They trusted them to help in restoring the territorial claims of Shandong along with a few requests, but none of these were answered. Japan took advantage of their alliance and acquired Shandong for themselves, just like how the madman perceived it to be, his relatives, or in that matter his own brother, devouring his flesh out of greed.

Religion in China: Chinese Buddhism

As of July 2008, the population of the People’s Republic of China has reached 1,330,044,544 which has always been governed by the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) since October 1, 1949 (Central Intelligence Agency). Though PRC is under very strict communist control, the country has already opened itself up to the rest of the world after the death of Mao Zedong in 1976. Deng Xiaoping turned the country into a market-driven economy issuing the Open Door Policy and engaging into foreign relations with countries like the United States of America.Aside from rejoining the world affairs, the people also experienced independence after being inhibited by the Cultural Revolution which suppressed all forms of freedom. One kind of freedom that the people have experienced is religious freedom (Central Intelligence Agency). PRC is a multi-religious country; hence, the country has diverse religious practices and beliefs (Embassy of the People's Republic of China in the United States of America) .The major religions, though, in the country are Buddhism, Taoism, Catholicism and Protestantism; however, there are still Chinese who practice traditional folk religions. In 1997, there are already more that 100 million Chinese who devote themselves to the religions mentioned above. Moreover, there are 85,000 locations dedicated to religious activities, 300,000 clergies, more than 3,000 religious organization, 74 schools and colleges managed by religious organizations (Embassy of the People's Republic of China in the United States of America).This paper, though, will center on Chinese Buddhism and attempts to prove that is the country’s true religion. According to Travel China Guide, the most important religion in China is Buddhism. About 102 million Chinese practice Chinese Buddhism, making China the country which has the most number of Buddhists in the year 2007 (Buddhist-Tourism). In 1997, there are already about 13,000 Buddhist temples and 200,000 monks and nuns. In addi tion, there is also a Buddhist Association of China (Embassy of the People's Republic of China in the United States of America).Gautama Buddha and His Teachings In general, Buddhism was formed through a Nepal prince, Siddharta Gautama, of the Shakya family. Ever since he was born in the 6th century BC, he was not aware of suffering of the people outside the palace; however, when he did become aware of this, he got upset and decided to leave the life of royalty. After leaving the life he used to live in the palace, Gautama resolved to practice asceticism for seven years only to find out that an ascetic lifestyle is not sufficient to take away suffering (Theobald).He then added meditation with asceticism and through meditation he was able to formulate inferences which turned him into a Buddha or an â€Å"Enlightened Man. † Afterwards, he went on and spread his teachings called the â€Å"Wheel of Teaching† – where the â€Å"wheel† stood as a symbol of Buddhi sm – and died at Kusinara (Theobald). Gautama Buddha formulated the Four Noble Truths which can be summed up as life is suffering due to the continuous yearning for survival and sensual pleasures (Theobald). Thus, Buddha devised the Eightfold Path that would restrain suffering.This Eightfold Path consists of (1) right views, (2) right intentions, (3) right speech, (4) right action, (5) right livelihood, (6) right effort, (7) right mindfulness and (8) right concentration which can be attained by conforming to a strict moral discipline, avoiding evil actions, doing good, cleansing the mind through mental discipline and mending it through the important aspects of doing good (Theobald). The Buddhist religion has what they call the Three Jewels which consists of the Buddha, the teachings and the community; moreover, the center of any Buddhist world is called Mount Sumeru that has its own Buddha (Theobald).Arrival of Buddhism in China Centuries after Gautama Buddha passed away, Bud dhism was finally able to enter China and began to co-exist with Confucianism and Taoism (Theobald). The Chinese Empire was able to gain contact with Buddhism in the Silk Road where there was a constant movement of traders and missionary. Chinese people were able to mingle with Buddhists from Central Asia – this was made possible due to the spread of Han Dynasty (25 AD – 220 AD) to the Central Asia during the 1st century AD in which increased the interaction of China and Central Asia through trading (BDEA Inc.& BuddhaNet). The Emperor Ming Ti of the Han Dynasty who ruled from 57 AD to 75 AD is said to have been a huge follower of Buddhism and Taoism (International Dunhuang Project). It was said that the Emperor dreamt of a foreign god – this triggered his sudden decision to sent messengers in India to look for Buddhist texts and teachers (Edkins, 88-89). Buddhists from India went to China along with the messengers that the Emperor sent as there is already a dema nd to translate Buddhist texts to Chinese. Buddhist monks like Lokashema, Kaspaya, Dharmaraksha, Kashiammadanga, Anshigao, etc.translated various Buddhist texts like the Shravakanaya texts, the Mahayana texts done by Lokashema, the Sutra of Forty-Two Sections done by Kashiapmadanga (who was said to have died in Lo-yang), Kasyapa and Dharmaraksha, etc. (BDEA Inc. & BuddhaNet; Edkins, 89; International Dunhuang Project). Along with other Buddhist texts being translated, Buddhism was spread more in China leading to the formation of a Chinese monastic order. In addition, there were already monks that are of Chinese decent – the first of them is said to be Anshigao’s disciple (BDEA Inc.& BuddhaNet). However, the Chinese were not able to comprehend the teachings of Buddhism at once for the translators used Taoist terms in order to translate the Buddhist terms; they encountered difficulty in finding the appropriate Chinese words to translate Buddhist concepts (BDEA Inc. & Bud dhaNet). Hence, the Chinese associated Buddhism to Taoism. Buddhism continued to grow despite the fall of the Han Dynasty in the early 3rd century. Translated Buddhist texts kept on going around and monasteries are being put up (BDEA Inc. & BuddhaNet).Chinese monks, like Dao-an, who is considered to be the most excellent Chinese monks of the 4th century, continued to invite translators like Kumarajiva from Kucha, who translated more important Buddhist texts and also revised the early translated Buddhist books (BDEA Inc. & BuddhaNet). Development of Chinese Buddhism In Travel Guide China, the development of Buddhism in China is divided into four periods. The first period is Buddhism in Han Dynasty which was already discussed earlier, it was also in this period where the White Horse Temple was put up which is said to be the first Buddhist monastery in China (Theobald).The second period was in Jin during the 265 AD to 420 AD – at the period of the Northern and Southern Dynasties (385 AD – 589 AD). At the period of Jin, more Buddhist texts were translated, written and spread out, Buddhism became even more popular all over China and there was a growth in number of Chinese Buddhists (Travel China Guide). The third period was from the Sui Dynasty (581 AD – 618 AD) to the Tang Dynasty (618 AD – 907 AD). During these two dynasties, Buddhism reached its peak and its development had been exceptional.This unparalleled development of Buddhism during this period was because the Sui emperors are Buddhists and the Tang emperors accepted the growth of other religions despite being strict Taoists (Travel China Guide). During the Tang Dynasty, Buddhism became a part of Chinese Art, Chinese Literature, Chinese Sculpture, Chinese Architecture and Chinese Philosophy (BDEA Inc. & BuddhaNet). The development was, however, halted during the late feudal society due to the heightening of social unrest in the country (Travel China Guide).The slumped developmen t of Buddhism occurred on the dying period of the Manchu Dynasty when the country got involved in wars against the Great Britain and series of peasant uprisings (ie. Boxer Rebellion) where China got striped off of its land and was divided among western countries and Japan in what was called the Spheres of Influence. The foreign occupation was followed by the fall of the Manchu Dynasty which was caused by the rise of the Nationalists, followed by the rise of the Communists which again triggered another civil revolution in the country which was briefly cut short due to World War II.Nonetheless, Buddhism was able to recover after the establishment of the PRC and even more after the reign of Mao Zedong. In addition, Buddhism has progressed into three different forms, namely, Han Buddhism, Tibetan Buddhism and Southern Buddhism (Travel China Guide). Schools of Chinese Buddhism There were different schools of Chinese Buddhism which emerged during the Tang Dynasty. It was said that these s chools were derived from old forms of Buddhism that came to China, however, modern scholars stated that the said connections are most like tampered and flawed.Nonetheless, there are four main Chinese Buddhism schools that surfaced during the 7th century, namely, (1) T’ien-t’ai, (2) Hua-yen, (3) Ch’an, and (4) Pure Land (Lusthaus). T’ien-t’ai School This school was founded by Zhiyi (Lusthaus). He led Chinese Buddhism to a direction different from the path that various Buddhist theories and practices are leading it into. Zhiyi recommended a comprehensive synthesis. The whole T’ien-t’ai school was rooted on the Lotus Sutra – in this school, they view the Lotus Sutra as the carrier of salvation based on practice (China Views).This school is portrayed as principled and meditation- and philosophy-centered. It served as the connector of the developing Buddhism in Northern China as both religion of faith and discipline, and the intelle ctual tradition in Southern China (China Views). Hua-yen School While T’ien-t’ai School was based on the Lotus Sutra, the Hua-yen School has the Avatamsaka Sutra as their root (Lusthaus). The leading belief of Hua-yen School is â€Å"dharmadatu† or the â€Å"universal causation of the realm of the law† (China Views).The said realm refers to the whole of the universe including all of its dimensions while the universal causation is a philosophical development that is purely Chinese. The universal causation is an extension of Buddha’s teachings regarding â€Å"dependant origination† (China Views). Ch’an School The Ch’an School is the result of the reaction that rose against the T’ien-t’ai School and Hua-yen School (Lusthaus). The Ch’an School viewed the two other schools as an impediment towards enlightenment due to their capacious and complicated literatures. This school centers on meditation.Ch’an Sch ool was founded by an Indian monk from Southern India named Bodhidharma who arrived in China around the 5th and 6th century. He taught according to the Lankavatara Sutra and also practiced a tremendously simple mediation (China Views). Pure Land School Unlike the other three schools of Chinese Buddhism which center on devotional elements and rituals, the Pure Land School which focuses on the very fundamentals of devotionalism (Lusthaus). In addition, compared to the other schools, the founder or the origin of Pure Land is not known. However, there are contributors named Tanluan, Dao Chuo and Shandao.Aside from centering on devotionalism, the school also stresses the faith in Amitabha Buddha (China Views). The devotion will be centered on Amitabha in order for him to grant them salvation which is in the form of being born again the in the west pure land. Furthermore, this school has also ignored the need for self-development through the teachings of Buddha regarding the way of salvat ion (China Views). The scriptures that the Pure Land School use are the Larger and Smaller Sukhavati Sutras and the Guan Wuliangshuofo Jing (Lusthaus). Chinese Buddhist Temple and DeitiesThe temples of Chinese Buddhism are built according to the palaces of their imperial family and are definitely unlike the temples of Buddhism from other Buddhist countries like India. It is established facing south and have three cluster of buildings divided by courtyards (BDEA Inc. & BuddhaNet). The first cluster is the front hall where the four massive images of the Four Heavenly Kings (Devas) greet anyone who enters (BDEA Inc. & BuddhaNet). The Devas are the Guardians of the Four Directions and two of each are placed on the right and left. Thus, the hall is called â€Å"Si-Tien Wang Tien† – a name derived from the Four Heavenly Kings (BDEA Inc.& BuddhaNet). Visitors are mostly greeted by the soon-to-be Buddha called Maitreya Buddha, commonly known as the â€Å"Laughing Buddha† or â€Å"Ta-pao Mi-Lei-Fwo. † This particular Buddha is usually the one with a fat paunch. Precisely at the back of the Maitreya Buddha is the Projector of Buddhist Temples and Faith, the great King, Wei-to (BDEA Inc. & BuddhaNet). He appears to be dressed in his full armor and is either holding a staff or a weapon in a shape of scepter. Aside from being the Projector of Buddhist Temples and Faith, Wei-to is also called the Protector of Buddhist Books (BDEA Inc.& BuddhaNet). Wei-to is always built facing the Great Hall or â€Å"Ta-Hung-Pau-Tien† – the second cluster which is separated away from the front hall by either a wall or a courtyard (BDEA Inc. & BuddhaNet). The main altar of the temple is found in this hall, the image of the altar being Sakyamuni Buddha and his two chief students, Mahakasyapa and Ananda, if not, the place of the two students can be replaced by other Buddhas from the past. Even the image of the main altar can be different; temples of Pu re Land Schools will have the image of Amitabha Buddha.Nonetheless, on the both left and right side of the main altar are the two Great Bodhisattvas, Manjusri or Wen-Shu-Shih-Li and Samantabhadra or Pu-Hsien, however, this too can vary (BDEA Inc. & BuddhaNet). The east and west halls of this hall have the assembled figures of the Eighteen Arhats. These Arhats or Lohas are said to be in control of different supernatural powers (BDEA Inc. & BuddhaNet). On the north wall is the images of Dipankara or Jan-teng Fwo and other popular and non-popular Bodhisattvas. There are also instances when the image of the Protector of Buddhism, Kuan Ti, is also found in this hall.The Great Hall serves as the place where the dedicated Buddhists pray and offer flowers, fruits, etc. in the main altar (BDEA Inc. & BuddhaNet). The last cluster is the back hall which is, most of the time, split into smaller halls or smaller rooms. In the center of this hall is usually an altar of a Buddha or a Bodhisattva ( BDEA Inc. & BuddhaNet). The right is usually the funerary tablet of the founder of the temple while the left is usually a hall for either teaching or meditating. Finally, there are living quarters, dining area and kitchen that are located either on the side of the three clusters or at their back (BDEA Inc. & BuddhaNet).Chinese Buddhism in Modern China The Chinese people realized the need for Chinese Buddhism to modernize as early as the 20th century. There were efforts to modernize Chinese Buddhism and these efforts began during the Manchu Dynasty led by Yang Wen-hui by republishing and redispersing Buddhist texts (Lancashire, 220). He also tried to learn the significance of Chinese Buddhism in the modern world as a whole. Through his examinations, he was able to construe that Buddhims goes well with modern science, and, also, Chinese Buddhists have a role to serve – to introduce Buddhism to the outside world particularly in the West (Lancashire, 220).Hence, he encouraged the Chinese Buddhists to recognize the value of modern science and the existing connection between it and Buddhism, and also helped the Chinese Buddhist to prepare for the missionary tasks they have to fulfill in introducing the religion to the west (Lancashire, 221). It continued until the Chinese Buddhist Association was also established in 1929. Membership for the association was divided between the laity and the clergy with the latter having more dominance (Lancashire, 222).During the early stages of the association, it was able to saw of the two most politcally active monks of that period, namely, T’ai-hsii and Yuan-ying. T’ai-shii was said to be the leader of the progressives while Yuan-ying was the major head of the much contemporary ideas (Lancashire, 222). Personal Interest: Marriage Buddhist weddings are usually characterized as worldly and materialistic, however, the couples who are about to be wed always make sure that they will be able to receive the blessing of the monks from local Buddhist temples exactly right after accomplishing the civil registration procedures (BDEA Inc.& BuddhaNet). Chinese Buddhists strictly abide to their religion that even if two people are already married in a civil ceremony, they still need to have a Buddhist wedding in order to be considered as rightfully married (Urban Dharma). Choosing for the wedding day is usually relied on fortune tellers, however, the couple or the their parents could now have the right to choose for the appropriate wedding day (Urban Dharma). Before the wedding, as early as 5:30 AM, the family of the man will go to the house of the woman with trays that they will give to the woman (Walsh and Poremba).Each tray has its own corresponding purpose and may contain things like wine, fruit, traditional and western cake, tea, meat, trau cau and jewelry. One tray will have a pair of candles that will be lit up by the fathers of the soon-to-be groom and bride to represent the union of the two families, in addition, there will also be a tray that will have the traditional gown that the bride will wear for the wedding (Walsh and Poremba).A roasted pig will also be given to the family of the bride; this roasted pork will be cut into three, the family of the woman will keep the middle part while the rest will be given back to the family of the man (Urban Dharma). Afterwards, a tea ceremony will be conducted in which the couple will serve the elders of the woman’s family with tea and, in return, they will give them red packets with money or jewelry inside. The tea ceremony will also be repeated in the house of the man (Urban Dharma).The wedding ceremony will come after, in Buddhist weddings, the groom and the bride will be the ones who will administer the wedding ceremony (Walsh and Poremba). Just as how early the groom and his family went to the bride’s house for the gifts and ceremonies, they groom will again go to the house of the bride, or wherever she is st aying, early in the morning with his groomsmen. Before the groom could enter the house, the friends of the bride will ask him questions that are difficult enough to test if he is suitable for the bride.In addition, another test will be on the financial aspect where the groom will give the bridesmaid red packets with money or jewelry (Urban Dharma). Afterwards, the bride will bid farewell to her family and will pay respects to her ancestors in the their family’s spirit house, the groom will also follow suit, offering a bowl of trau cau to them with him (Walsh and Poremba). The couple along with the bridesmaids and groomsmen will then go to the house of the groom. The mother of the bride and the mother-in-law will put earrings on the bride to signify her virginity (Walsh and Poremba). Respects will again be paid to the ancestors of the groom.Again, a tea ceremony will be held where the groom and the bride will serve their parents. The tea ceremony will symbolize that the couple is married, it is also this ceremony which makes the bride a part of the groom’s family (Urban Dharma; Walsh and Poremba). Professional Interest: Interacting with Chinese Investors The essential beliefs and values of the Chinese are deeply rooted from philosophies and teachings of Confucianism, Taoism and Buddhism (Miroslawski, 46). Hence, even the holistic configuration of the Chinese society has its origin in the three major philosophies and religions in the country.Thus, in order to fully comprehend the Chinese culture, one must understand the different philosophies that the Chinese believe in and how these philosophies affect their way of life. In his study, Miroslawski (2008) compared and contrasted China and Germany using the cultural dimensions formulated by Geert Hofstede. In the comparison, it was learned that the organizational model of the Chinese emphasized on the necessity of a single supervisor at the top who will give those below instructions that should be fo llowed.This model is due to the Chinese inclination towards extensive power distance and the necessity for them to have an apparent and influential type of leadership (Miroslawski, 46-47). The Chinese are also collective in nature, hence, they always put the welfare of their group over their personal interests (Miroslawski, 47). Chinese have the tendency to not to speak out from the group just so they could maintain their good relationship with one another – this is also the case by not choosing to speak out towards their superiors.Aside from Hofstede’s explanation that if there is a high power distance, there is also high collectivism in the society, the organization model can also be attributed to China’s extended family and patriarchal society. Moreover, it is also due to Confucius’ teachings about filial piety (Miroslawski, 48). It is also because of the fact that Chinese are collectivists that their communication vary from those who are inside their group and those who are outside. This is also due to the huge amount of loyalty that the Chinese put on one another (Miroslawski, 48).Another finding was that China has a very high-context culture, hence, the value on face-saving is high and tremenduously important (Miroslawski, 48). Face-saving refers to instituing, sustaining and intensifying status. Despite being collectivists, the Chinese still give themselves value by having a significant status in the group, still, this reflects only within the group as every group tries to contain all their knowledge within them. In order to comprehend Chinese more easily, then, they must be from a high-context culture as well or at least attempt to study their ways (Miroslawski, 48).Conclusion Chinese Buddhists range from 50% to 80% of the Chinese population, their infrastructures are more than 10,000 in numbers while there are hundreds of thousands Chinese Buddhist monks, nuns, lamas and Buddhas (Embassy of the People's Republic of China in the United States of America; Vipassana Foundation). The Chinese have, indeed, welcomed and nourished the Buddhist religion ever since it arrived in China during the Han Dynasty. Emperors were open enough to accept its unstoppable growth and even allow it continue its development.Despite the turmoils that the country experienced during its fall at the period of the Manchu, the Chinese people still resurrected and modernized the religion in order to make it still fitting with the changing times. It can be said that the Chinese Buddhists are very loyal to their religion that when it comes to marriage, the couple should still be wed in a Buddhist ceremony in order to be considered married. Though the Chinese are no longer particular about having their child marrying another Chinese, they would still want the couple to undergo a Buddhist wedding ceremony.The rituals, the ceremonies and the traditions are still being strictly followed. However, there are practices that were no longer co nstantly done, like parents arranging the marriage of their children, going to the matchmakers, and consultation with forture tellers. Chinese are now allowing their children to chose who they want to marry irregardless of nationality and the couple are also free to choose what day they would like their wedding to be held. Perhaps the most difficult matter where other people from other countries to get along with the Chinese is regarding business.Chinese tends not to share what they know with others even with their fellow Chinese. Moreover, they also wanted to play a big role in a certain agreement. In addition, engaging a business with Chinese might take a lot of time as they will always consult their group regarding the business at hand. These qualities of the Chinese is attributable to their high power distance, collectivism and context culture (Miroslawski, 46-48). Chinese prefer having a someone above them who are capable of leading them irregardless of the circumstances.They w ill always put the best interests of the group their their own and they do not share anything to anyone easily for they find it hard to trust other people, however, they gave their utmost loyalty to their group. This is due to their philosophies and religion – Confucianism, Taoism and Buddhism (Miroslawski, 46). Works Cited BDEA Inc. & BuddhaNet. â€Å"Buddhist Studies: Chinese Buddhist Temple. † 2008. Buddhist Studies: Buddha Dharma Education Association & BuddhaNet. 13 October 2008 . BDEA Inc. & BuddhaNet.â€Å"Buddhist Studies: Mahayana Buddhism: Chinese. † 2004. Buddhist Studies: Buddha Dharma Education & BuddhaNet. 13 October 2008 . BDEA Inc. & BuddhaNet. â€Å"Buddhist Studies: Personal Ceremonies in Buddhism: Marriage. † 2008. Buddhist Studies: Buddha Dharma Education Association & BuddhaNet. 15 October 2008 . BDEA Inc. & BuddhaNet. â€Å"Timeline of Major Events in Chinese Buddhism. † 2008. Buddhist Studies: Buddha Dharma Education Associat ion & BuddhaNet.13 October 2008 . Buddhist-Tourism. â€Å"Statistics on Buddhism, Statistics on Buddhist Religion, Buddhist World Statistics Description. † 2007. Buddist-Tourism. 14 October 2008 . Central Intelligence Agency. â€Å"CIA – The World Factbook — China. † 9 October 2008. Central Intelligence Agency. 14 October 2008 . China Views. â€Å"Chinese Mahayana Buddhism – A Complete History.† 2007. China Views. 13 October 2008 . Edkins, Joseph. Chinese Buddhism: A Volume of Sketches, Historical, Descriptive and Critical. New Jersey: Gorgias Press LLC, 2003. Embassy of the People's Republic of China in the United States of America. â€Å"White Paper–Freedom of Religious Belief in China. † October 1997. Embassy of the People's Republic of China in the United States of America. 14 October 2008 . International Dunhuang Project. â€Å"Chinese Buddhism on the Silk Road.† n. d. International Dunhuang Project. 13 October 2008 . Lancashire, Douglas. â€Å"Buddhism in Modern China. † Religion in Communist Lands (1977, 5 (4)): 220-228. Lusthaus, Dan. â€Å"Buddhist philosophy, Chinese: Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy Online. † 1998. Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy. 13 October 2008 . Lusthaus, Dan. â€Å"Buddhist philosophy, Chinese: Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy Online. † 1998. Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy.13 October 2008 . Lusthaus, Dan. â€Å"Buddhist philosophy, Chinese: Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy Online. † 1998. Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy. 13 October 2008 . Lusthaus, Dan. â€Å"Buddhist philosophy, Chinese: Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy Online. † 1998. Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy. 13 October 2008 . Lusthaus, Dan. â€Å"Buddhist Philosophy, Chinese: Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy Online.† 1998. Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy. 13 October 2008 . Miroslawski, Gregor. â€Å"International Expan sion & Market Entry of Mainland Chinese Businesses in Germany within the Context of Culture. † China Media Research (2008, 4 (2)): 46-59. Theobald, Ulrich. â€Å"Religions in China, Chinese Religions – Buddhism ( ). † 2000. ChinaKnowledge – a universal guide for China studies. 13 October 2008 . Travel China Guide. â€Å"China Buddhism. † 14 October 2008.Travel China Guide. 13 October 2008 . Urban Dharma. â€Å"Newsletter – 2/10/04. † 10 February 2004. Urbad Dharma. 15 October 2008 . Vipassana Foundation. â€Å"Buddhists in the World. † July 2008. The Dhamma. 15 October 2008 . Walsh, Richard T. and Barbara Poremba. â€Å"Buddhist Wedding Ceremony. † 1998. Salem State College. 15 October 2008 .

Fresh Water Essay

1. Introduction Fresh water is an indispensable resource for human livelihood, agricultural irrigation and economic development (Brooks, 2007). However, due to the rapid population growth and the limited reserves, increasing regions have faced serious scarcity of fresh water (Williamson, 2010). Saudi Arabia is one of the driest countries in the world (CIA, 2011). According to World Bank (2011), the world average fresh water consumption is nearly 7000m ³/year/person, while the water resource per capita in Saudi Arabia is less than 1200m ³/year/person. In order to satisfy the demand for water, Saudi Arabia currently supplies fresh water via deep drilling of fossil groundwater (UNESCO, 2009). Nevertheless, society increasingly recognises that those water resources are non-renewable and are liable to be reduced by the overexploited boreholes and wells. Thus Saudi Arabia needs to find alternative and sustainable methods to solve these issues. Since there is abundant sea water around Saudi Arabia, large-scale desalination could be the ideal solution to water scarcity. However, the expensive cost and the detrimental influence on the environment might limit the scale and sustainability of this method. Due to the cheap cost and the minor environmental damage, wastewater reuse is regarded as another potential solution. However, it seems to have a low social acceptance. Therefore, this report will compare the feasibility of desalination and water reuse in terms of cost, social acceptance and environmental impacts, thereby exploring the most suitable method to deal with the scarcity of water in Saudi Arabia. 2. Background Saudi Arabia is located in the Middle East, bordering the Persian Gulf and the Red Sea (CIA, 2011). It is famous for the abundant reserves of oil and gas. However, the fresh water resources in Saudi Arabia are very limited. According to World Bank (2011), there is no one river and lake with perennial water throughout this country. Furthermore, due to the influence of the subtropical climate, the annual precipitation is only about 100 mm and the climate is hot and dry (ibid.). Additionally, rapid population growth has caused higher increase of demand for water (Abderrahman, 2000). Shortages of water have constrained the development of agriculture and economy (Williamson, 2010). Since the underground water is estimated to be able to supply for 320 years, the underground water is still the principal source of water at present (UNESCO, 2009: 100). However, with the increasing awareness of defects of this method, the focus of the future development of water provision has shifted to other sustainable water technologies. In order to deal with fresh water shortages, desalination has received enormous investments. According to Abu-Arabi (2007), in 2004 the number of desalination industries reached 30 and they can supply 1.1 billion cubic metres of fresh water per year. Wastewater reuse is regarded as another future means of water provision. According to Bashitialshaaer et al (2009), in 2009 there were 33 wastewater treatment plants with a capacity of 748 billion cubic metres per year. 3. Requirements Cost should be the principal consideration of water provision because an expensive cost might limit the scale of application of methods. This also includes the cost of energy consumption. Social acceptance plays a significant role in the development of water supply technologies. If the water cannot be accepted by society, it will lead to very little consumption. Environment has a profound influence on human beings. In order to prevent water supply technology undermining the environment, its impacts on the environment should be considered. 4. Presentation of options 4.1 Desalination Desalination is â€Å"a specific treatment process to take minerals from saline water to purify for drinking water and irrigation† (Al-Sahlawi, 1999). Sometimes this process is used to take salinity and other pollutants from wastewater. The general method of desalination is reverse osmosis or multi-stage flash distillation (Lone Star Chapter of the Sierra Club, 2008). 4.2 Water Reuse Water reuse means treating wastewater to a specific quality, and then using treated or reclaimed water from one application for another application (McKenzie, 2005; Asano, 2006). The resources for wastewater reuse are various; according to Asano (2006), they could be domestic wastewater, industrial sewage, municipal sewage or agricultural wastewater. 5. Comparison of Options 5.1 Cost Although the cost of desalination has decreased dramatically in the past three decades, it is still expensive to use in large scale. Alghariani (2003) points out that the expenditure of desalination consists of initial investment for equipment, running costs (including staff and maintenance), as well as chemicals or specialised parts. At present, according to the Third World Water Assessment Report (UNESCO, 2009: 155), the average cost of desalination is between $0.60/m ³ and $0.80/m ³. Moreover, Owens and Brunsdale (2000, cited in Alghariani, 2003: 5) claim that the cost of desalination in Florida can even be less than $0.55/m ³, which is one-tenth of the cost price in 1979. However, as Wright (2009) points out, this cost is still higher than other water supply technologies. Apart from expenditure, desalination is generally considered a high-cost process due to the enormous energy consumption (Abu-Arabi, 2007). Nevertheless, this does not seem to be a problem for Saudi Arabia. According to the CIA (2010), the proven oil and gas reserves in Saudi Arabia are respectively the first and fifth in the world. As Abu-Arabi (2007) points out, in Saudi Arabia the annual solar energy received by each square kilometre of land is equivalent to 1.5 million barrels of crude oil. Abundant energy may lead to a low price. Nevertheless, oil is non-renewable and oil reserves are estimated to last less than one century (World Energy Council, 2010), so the consumption of energy should be taken into account as a considerable cost. Moreover, the treatment of the waste gas generated by desalination also increases the cost (Al-Sahlawi, 1999). The cost of water reuse is influenced by various factors such as treatment level, intended reuse options, location of treatment, wastewater collection and transportation. According to Qadir et al (2009), the average cost of recycling water is approximately $1.79 per cubic metre. However, compared to desalination, wastewater reuse has the advantage of cost. Fryer (2010) demonstrates that the relative marginal cost of seawater desalination is higher than water recycling, and amounts to up to $2000 per acre-foot. The water recycling represented a general fluctuation pattern between approximately $300 and $1000 per acre-foot (Fryer, 2010). Even so, water recycling appears cheaper than desalination. 5.2 Social acceptance While both options can generate safe water, desalination seems to have higher social acceptance. Sloane (2009) investigated the acceptance of desalination and water reuse at Nourieh Palms. As shown in Table 2, in all areas but particularly drinking water, the approval rate for desalination is higher than water reuse. This reflects that more people trust the quality of water which is generated by desalination. Source: Sloane (2009: 128) For most uses, reclaimed water tends to have lower social acceptance than desalination. There are various reasons why people do not trust reclaimed water. First, most people do not understand the difference between treated and untreated water (McKenzie, 2005). Secondly, they are often concerned about the type of wastewater, treatment levels and the availability of information (Qadir, 2009). There are particular concerns with the wastewater produced by the petroleum industry, brought to the surface when drilling oil. This kind of wastewater is difficult to treat due to the high content of oil (Asatekin and Mayes, 2009). Therefore, though reclaimed water undergoes a very thorough treatment process which makes it entirely safe to drink, the public are reluctant to drink treated sewage. However, it is not impossible that people will accept drinking such treated sewage. For example, Singapore has successfully used reclaimed water, a product named NEWater, to supply drinking water (Tortajada, 2006). This reflects that treated wastewater could become widely accepted through public education. 5.3 Influence on environment There are some environmental disadvantages of desalination. Since Saudi Arabia is rich in oil and gas, clean energy such as solar energy tends to be used less than fossil energy (Al-Sahlawi, 1999). The overuse of fossil energy may cause serious environmental pollution. For instance, oil might generate large quantities of carbon dioxide, which is the main factor leading to global warming (Al-Aza, 2005). Furthermore, the gas emissions from oil could undermine the ozone layer and cause acid rain (ibid.). In addition to environmental pollution caused by fossil energy, brine discharge is another serious problem. After desalination, the brines generally have a higher concentration of salt, nearly twice that of natural seawater (Tsiourtis, 2002). The brines are generally discharged back to the same place where the seawater comes from. This might lead to increased concentration of salt in the sea, which is a potential threat to aquatics. In contrast with the desalination, wastewater reuse is regarded as an eco-friendly way to supply fresh water. Recycling water can maximise the use of rainfall and other current water resources so that the limited underground water resources can be conserved (Miller, 2005). In the meantime, decreased energy consumption could reduce the pollution caused by the use of fossil energy (Ghermandi et al, 2007). Therefore, recycled water is a sustainable and eco-friendly method to supply good quality fresh water. 6. Conclusion From the information given above, the following conclusions can be drawn: 1) Both desalination and wastewater reuse are feasible water supply technologies. 2) The cost of desalination has decreased dramatically, but is still far more than water reuse. Desalination requires more capital and energy. 3) Reclaimed water has low public acceptance, especially for drinking water. 4) Desalination could undermine the environment, while water reuse is eco-friendly. 7. Recommendation Considering the cost and the impact on the environment, wastewater reuse is recommended to be used as the main water supply technology. Although the public acceptance of recycled water is lower than desalination, the example of Singapore has proven that reclaimed water could be accepted in daily life. Desalination is a costly water supply technology. Furthermore, it needs a vast amount of energy. Even if Saudi Arabia has abundant oil and gas reserves, as these resources are non-renewable, desalination is not suitable for sustainable water supply. Additionally, it has detrimental influences upon the environment. Therefore, Saudi Arabia should improve the ratio of wastewater reuse in the whole fresh water supply system. 8. References Abderrahman, W. (2000). Urban Water Management in Developing Arid Countries. Water Resources Development 16 (1) pp7-20. Abu-Arabi, M. (2007). Status and Prospects for Solar Desalination in the Mena Region. In Rizzuti, L., Ettouney, H., and Cipollina, A. (eds.) Solar Desalination for the 21st Century: A Review of Modern Technologies and Researches on Desalination Coupled to Renewable Energies (pp163-178). Dordrecht: Springer. Al-Aza, M. (2005). Oil Pollution and Its Environmental Impact in the Arabian Gulf Region. Boston: Elsevier. Alghariani, S. (2003). Water Transfer Versus Desalination in North Africa: Sustainability and Cost Comparison. London: School of Oriental and African Studies. Al-Sahlawi, M. (1999). Seawater Desalination in Saudi Arabia: Economic Review and Demand Projections. Desalination (123) pp143-147. Asano, T. (2006). Water Reuse: Issues, Technologies and Applications. New York: McGraw Hill. Asatekin, A. And Mayes, A. (2009). Oil Industry Wastewater Treatment with Fouling Resistant Membranes Containing Amphiphilic Comb Copolymers. Evrion. Sci. Technol. 43 (12) pp. 4487-4492. Bashitialshaaer, R., Persson, K., and Larsson, M. (2009). Estimated Future Production of Desalinated Seawater in the MENA Countries and Consequences for the Recipients. Dubai: IDA World Congress. Brooks, D. (2007). Fresh Water in the Middle East and North Africa. In Lipchin, C., Pallant, E., Saranga, D. And Amster, A. (eds.) Water Resources Management and Security in the Middle East (pp. 33-64). Dordrecht: Springer. CIA (2011). Saudi Arabia. Retrieved 5 April 2011 from https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/sa.html Fryer J. (2010). An Investigation of the Marginal Cost of Seawater Desalination in California. Retrieved 5 April 2011 from http://r4rd.org/wp-content/uploads/2009/07/Cost_of_Seawater_Desalination__Final_3-18-09.pdf Ghermandi, A., Bixio, D. And Thoeye, C. (2007). The Role of Free Water Constructed Wetlands As Polishing Step in Municipal Wastewater Reclamation and Reuse. Science of the Total Environment. 380 (1-3) pp. 247-258. Lone Star Chapter of the Sierra Club (2008). Desalination: Is It Worth the Salt?. Retrieved 5 April 2011 from http://texas.sierraclub.org/press/Desalination.pdf McKenzie, C. (2005). Wastewater Reuse Conserves Water and Protects Waterways. On Tap Winter 44 (4) pp46-51. Miller, G. (2005). Integrated Concepts in Water Reuse: Managing Global Water Needs. Desalination 187 (1-3) pp. 65-75. Tsiourtis, N. (2002). Desalination and the Environment. Desalination. 141 (3) pp. 223-236. UNESCO (2009). The United Nations World Water Development Report, 3: Water in a Changing World. Paris and London: Earthscan. Qadir, M., Bahri, A., Sato, T., and Al-Karadsheh, E. (2009). Wastewater Production, Treatment and Irrigation in the Middle East and North Africa. Biomedical and Life Science 24 (1-2) pp37-51. Sloane, T. (2009). Water Provision: A Comparative Analysis. London: Sage. Tortajada, C. (2006). Water Management in Singapore. International Journal of Water Resources Development (22) pp. 227-240. Williamson, F. (2010). Water Management: Traditional and Alternative Approaches. International Resource Management. 15(2) pp. 227-231. World Bank (2011). Saudi Arabia. Retrieved 5 April 2011 from http://data.worldbank.org/country/saudi-arabia World Energy Council (2010). Issues. Retrieved 5 April 2011 from http://worldenergy.org/Issues Wright, G. (2009). The Economic Feasibility of Desalination for Water Supply to Arid Regions. Global Water Issues 13 (2) pp202-206.

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